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Contraction cycle of muscle fibers

(Clikee the image to enlarge)
Cycle begins:
1. After the Ca + + binds to troponin, the moves and frees the myosin binding site. Myosin then binds to that site on actin.
2. The binding of ATP decreases the affinity of myosin to actin and release
3. The cebeza of myosin with bound ATP undergoes a hidrlisis ATP to ADP and that changes the protein conformation swerving back.
4. The binding of ADP increases the affinity of myosin for actin and bind.
5. The output of ADP from the myosin creates a conformational movement forward, pulling the actin fiber.
6. This cycle is repeated, making in each cycle the myosin head is attached to post sites to advance successive actin fiber.

In conclusion
1. To get a muscle is required Ca + + and ATP
2. This cycle is repeated many times to produce a muscle contraction
3. Muscle relaxation is caused by lack of calcium, blocking the myosin binding site and the impossibility of that happening this cycle until it reaches a new signal.
4. The cramps are due to the lack of oxygen and the consequent lack of ATP (cellular respiration) in the cell. In the absence ATP, myosin has difficulty letting go of the actin and the muscle tends to remain contracted.

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Myosin is a protein with a tail and a head. This myosin is attached to another to form a dimer and in turn these dimers join to form a large polymer of myosin, resembling a tree twigs. All these myosins form the myosin thick fiber plant in the sarcomere.

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Actin Myosin

The actin consists of two globular subunits (alpha and beta) as dimers. These dimers are helically wound fibrillar chains. On this chain of actin, are also the Tropomyosin and T roponina , Both important for muscle contraction.

Troponin is made up of three subunits: subunit C, subunit I subunit T and

subunit C binds the calcium ion (Ca + +) and this binding changes the conformation of troponin-dimensional. T

subunit: binds to tropomyosin

subunit I, is blocking a binding site for myosin on actin.

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spatial arrangement of actin and myosin fibers

fibrils actin and myosin are arranged three-dimensionally within the cylindrical beam. Myosin fibers are the bullets. Actin fibers are thin spots in hexagon shaped around the entire myosin.

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interdigitating actin and myosin

can observe small myosin heads interacting with actin and the movement of which allows the contraction and relaxation of the sarcomeres.

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The sarcomere is seen in terms of relaxation and contraction. This activity should be almost immediate for the contraction of a muscle to be effective.

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sarcomere muscle cell

Myofibrils has thousands of fibers of protein actin (thin) and myosin (thick), arranged so that can interdigitate between them, to cause contraction. The fundamental unit of contraction is called sarcomeres (photo). Has a relaxed sarcomere actin fibers further apart, one has contracted sarcomere actin fibers closer together horizontally.
The limit a sarcomere Z lines and separated from other sarcomeres. Banda
A: corresponds to the width of the myosin fibers
Banda H: is the separation between the actin filaments
Banda I: corresponds to the width between the Z line and M-band
Line: corresponds to a clamping central fiber myosin

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A muscle cell is also called muscle fiber . The plasma membrane is called Sarcolemma . The sarcolemma has multiple extensions to the cytoplasm in T tubules calls (transverse tubules). The cytoplasm is called Sarcoplasm and rough endoplasmic reticulum is called sarcoplasmic reticulum . Sarcolemma
Binding of internalized (the T tubule) and sarcoplasmic reticulum, forming a three-chamber structure called Triad . The role of the triad is the rapid transmission of action potentials from the cell membrane of all fibers in the muscle.
The cytoplasm is filled with a cylindrical bundles of myofibrils.

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Myofibril muscular system: muscles

muscular system function is to allow the movement of bones and internal organs. There are 3 types of muscles:

a) striated or skeletal muscle: voluntary, with highly differentiated cells into a cylinder. Move the most important muscles, has stretch marks. These fibers are the result of mergers of individual cells to form a muscle fiber or multinuclear syncytium (cytoplasm together).

b) cardiac muscle: involuntary, does not form a syncytial tissue as above, but that their cells are separated by adhesion molecules, has stretch marks. It is exclusive of the heart.

c) Smooth muscle: involuntary, has no stretch marks. Allows the movement of blood vessels and other organs. Actin and myosin are disordered and are not ordained as beams above the other tissues.

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types of peripheral nerves: The Nervous System Cranial Nerves

somatic nerves are divided into spinal nerves and cranial nerves. The cranial nerves are 12 pairs in and out from the brain and perform different functions in this segment of the nervous system. The nerves are often referred to by Roman numerals. There are sensory nerves, and hybrid engines.

I. Olfactory nerve (sensory): transmits information from the olfactory mucosa to the brain

II. Optic nerve (sensory): transmits information from the retina to the visual centers

III. Oculomotor nerve (motor) movements of the eye lens and pupil

IV. Trochlear nerve (motor): eye movements

V. Trigeminal (combined): facial sensations of pain and chewing

VI. Abductor (motor): Eye Movements

VII. Facial (combined): facial expression, salivation and taste

VIII. Vestibulocochlear (sensory): Balance and hearing

IX. Glossopharyngeal (combined): Deglusión, salivation and taste

X. Vago (combined): visceral sensation and control. Blood pressure monitors, cough and deglusión

XI. Cord (motor) movements of the head and shoulders

XII. Hypoglossal (motor) movements of the tongue

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parasympathetic

The parasympathetic system is characterized by:
1. Preganglionic neurons originate in the brainstem and the sacral region.
2. Preganglionic axons are long
3. Postganglionic axons are short
4. Preganglionic axons synapse in terminal ganglia.
5. Preganglionic axons and are postganglionic cholinergic (using acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter).
6. The system takes care of restoring the functional requirements for balance in the body.

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sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

The sympathetic system is characterized by:
1. This consists of preganglionic neurons that originate in the thoracic and lumbar portions
2. Preganglionic axons are short
3. Postganglionic axons are long
4. Preganglionic axons synapse in paravertebral ganglia, prevertebral and terminals.
5. Its nodes are close to the central nervous system and away from the effector
6. Preganglionic axons are cholinergic (ACh used in the synapse)
7. Postganglionic axons are mostly adrenergic (using noradrenaline in the synapse). Eg sweat glands, blood vessels, muscles, skin and genital organs.
8. Responds to emergencies, preferencies the activity of certain organs at the expense of others. For example: In an assault situation, blood is in greater proportion to the brain and muscles instead of flushing the digestive system and kidneys.

8.

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Peripheral nervous system PNS

is subdivided into the somatic and autonomic nervous system.
1. The somatic nervous system carries all those nerves that control voluntary muscles of the body.

2. The autonomic nervous system controls the operation of those organs that have an activity independent of the will and are of vital importance such as to control heart rate, respiratory rate during day and night, striated muscles and glands. The autonomic system is subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic system. The Sympathetic regulates the function of organs in situations of emergency and the parasympathetic system regulates the function of organs to normal activity contexts.

sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are always active but sometimes more or less active depending on the situation. During the day situations emergencies are more common, so the sympathetic system is more active. Overnight and / or day, in situations of peace and quiet, the parasympathetic system is dominant.

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Spinal cord and via conductive and processors

Many of the reflex responses have their origin in the spinal cord. The functions of the spinal cord are mainly two:

a) Function driver: Drive motor and sensory information from each side of the spinal cord. Currently the bone is almost completely mapped and know many ways that lead or tracts afferent and efferent myelinated axons through the white matter. Some

pathways are:

1. Spinothalamic pathway, leading to pain and temperature information from peripheral receptors to the brain.

2. Corticospinal tract: Drive motor information from the brain to the spinal nerves.

3. Spinocerebellar tract: Drive information from muscles and tendons to the cerebellar cortex.

4. Goll and Burdach routes: Lead sensitive information related to touch and pressure.

b) Function products: here are made simple behaviors like reflexes. Eg, the patellar reflex, blink reflex and others.

routes processors are:

1. Goll pathways

2. Burdach pathways

3. Lateral corticospinal tract and dorsal spinocerebellar

4. Espinatalamico lateral roads or anterolateral system

5. Spinothalamic tract anterior or ventral spinocerebellar

6. Anterior corticospinal tract.

If an injury occurs at the 5th vertebra cdervical, the paralysis affects the whole body (Cuadraplejia or quadriplegia). If the injury affects only the lumbar region, the paralysis will occur in the lower limbs (paraplegia).

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Spinal cord and vertebrae

Spinal Nerves divided into pairs (bilateral). 8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5 lumbar nerves, 5 sacral nerves and 1 coccygeal nerve. In total 31 pairs of nerves. Each nerve has two points of contact with the spinal cord, dorsal root and ventral root.
Recall that a nerve is a large fascicle of axons to blood vessels

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Cerebellum

Fine motor (writing), precision (threading a needle) and coordination (cycling). Maintains muscle tone and posture. It also maintains the balance, integrating the information of the vestibular apparatus. Joins the brainstem by the cerebellar peduncle, forming two cerebellar hemispheres and both hemispheres are connected by the vermis.

The cerebellar cortex is made up of gray matter and has Purkinje cells are giant neurons that integrate motor information and reports on the position of the body permanently.

Cerebellum use the feedback mechanism: Compare the movement that wants to do with the position of the body and thus continuously corrects the direction and accuracy of movements (receives information from muscles and joints).

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Breath controlled by the [H +]

When performing a physical exercise increase CO2 levels in the blood by the action of cellular respiration in muscle cells. The CO2 in the blood plasma is taken up by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) and with the H2O is converted to H2CO3 (carbonic acid), which being a weak acid, dissociates in water to H + and HCO3-. The protons travel via blood to the chemosensitive area in front of the medulla oblongata, it sends signals to the dorsal respiratory group and the latter sends signals to the respiratory muscles to increase respiratory rate and decrease blood CO2.

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Nervous regulation of blood pressure

If

at a given time increases blood pressure above certain levels, the aortic baroreceptors and carotid sinus are distended and send afferent signals through the vagus nerve and Hering (which joins the glossopharyngeal), respectively. The signals enter the dorsal respiratory group of the medulla and from there send signals to two nerve centers:
a) inhibits the vasoconstrictor center, producing vasodilation and
b) Enables the vagal center, which decreases heart rate and strength systolic.
In both cases, the action restores the normal condition of lowering blood pressure.
This occurs in reverse if there is a drop in blood pressure.

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Breath controlled by oxygen

If at a low concentration of dissolved oxygen in the blood, the chemoreceptors of the carotid bodies and aortic bodies send signals via the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerve respectively. These afferent signals reach the dorsal respiratory group of medulla oblongata and they send efferent signals to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm to increase the frequency and thus increase inspiratory oxygen concentration.

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Trunk Brain: Bulb brainstem spinal

The above are the Pyramids area, crossing area where 80% of descending fibers. This determines the right movement of the body is controlled by the left hemisphere and vice versa.
in the medulla oblongata controls the blood pressure, the diameter of blood vessels, the pause between expiration and inspiration, heart rate and force of the heartbeat. There are centers and dorsal respiratory groups (controlled breathing) and ventral (control inspiration and expiration is required only when high ventilation). These centers also receive signals from the lung (stretch receptors) via the vagus nerve, which stop inspiration (protective reflex Hering-Brewer).

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allows integration between the brain and cerebellum. Produces reflex responses that come out of the cranial nerves. Has respiratory centers:

Neumotaxico Center: limits the duration of inhalation and exhalation easier. Receives afferent input from chemoreceptors, baroreceptors and enteroreceptores, via the vagus and glossopharyngeal.

Apneustico Center: Extends inhibits inspiration and expiration. sends signals to the dorsal respiratory group medulla.

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Brain stem: midbrain superior function

The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord. Controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate. It consists of a midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata.

Midbrain: It has reflex centers for eye movement, head and neck in response to visual stimuli, and head movements in response to auditory stimuli.

The superior colliculi are responsible for eye movement

process

The inferior colliculus auditory brainstem

: They have 3 areas

important

a) substantia nigra, motor responses

b) red nucleus: cell relay between the cerebrum and cerebellum

c) colliculus: reflex centers of eye movement control.

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: Language

The Broca area : processes information it receives from the area of \u200b\u200bWernicke for vocalization patterns.
When a word is heard , the feeling is received at the hearing by the primary auditory cortex, but the word can not be understood until the signal has been processed in the area of \u200b\u200bWernicke. If the word is to be vocalized, the signals go through the booklet arched to Broca's area. In Broca's area evokes a detailed joint program supported by the motor cortex and muscles of the face and mouth (effectors).
When a word is read , the sensation is registered by the primary visual cortex, then the signal passes through the angular gyrus which visually associates the word with the corresponding auditory pattern in Wernicke's area. then goes through and reaches the arcuate fasciculus to Broca's area. Expressive Aphasia

: If the damaged area is the area of \u200b\u200bBroca, the patient speaks slowly and has difficulty expressing words. Receptive aphasia
: If the damaged area is the area of \u200b\u200bWernicke, the subject is fluent, but uses the wrong words, does not receive its own language. Conductive Aphasia
: If the damage is in the arcuate fasciculus, the patient understands what he hears and speaks fluently but can not repeat the words. Nominal Aphasia
: If the damage is at the junction of temporal and occipital lobes, the patient has difficulty naming objects, colors and other elements known.

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time REM (REM) and NREM (NREM) sleep

Figure 1: With age rapidly decreases the number of hours of sleep to be constant at about 6 hours.
Figure 2: With age, time in REM dream phase decreases rapidly when young and slowly as adults.
Figure 3: The percentage of time in stage 4 sleep decreases rapidly with age.

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At an early age, children more time to reach stage 4 of NREM and dream a lot. In young adults, the time in NREM stage 4 decreases significantly and wake up. In older adults, do not get to stage 4, wake up many times during the night and dream less.

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